Exploring the Artistry of the First Video Game: A Deep Dive into its Inception and Impact

The world of video games has come a long way since its inception in the 1970s. From simple pixelated graphics to immersive 3D worlds, video games have evolved into a multi-billion dollar industry that captivates audiences of all ages. But amidst the flashy graphics and intricate storylines, one question remains: what was the first video game that could be considered art?

In this deep dive, we will explore the origins of video games and examine the various factors that contributed to the creation of the first artistic game. From the pioneers who paved the way for the industry to the groundbreaking games that changed the way we think about gaming, this article will take a closer look at the inception and impact of the first video game that could be considered art. So buckle up and get ready to explore the captivating world of video game artistry.

The Origins of Video Games: A Brief Overview

The Dawn of Gaming: Early Arcade Machines

In the early 1970s, the video game industry emerged with the development of early arcade machines. These machines were coin-operated and designed to be played in public spaces such as arcades, bars, and amusement parks. They featured simple graphics and limited gameplay mechanics, but they captured the imagination of gamers and paved the way for the development of more complex games.

One of the earliest and most influential arcade games was Pong, which was released in 1972 by Atari. Pong was a simple game that involved players controlling a paddle to hit a ball back and forth across the screen. However, it was an instant hit and set the stage for the development of more complex and sophisticated games.

Other early arcade games included Space Invaders, Asteroids, and Pac-Man, which all became iconic in their own right. These games were designed to be easy to pick up and play, but challenging enough to keep players engaged for hours on end. They also featured innovative graphics and sound effects that added to the overall gaming experience.

Overall, the early arcade machines represented a significant turning point in the history of video games. They introduced new gameplay mechanics, graphics, and sound effects that would go on to influence the development of video games for years to come.

The Evolution of Video Games: From Pong to Space Invaders

In the early days of video games, developers were experimenting with new ideas and pushing the boundaries of what was possible on screen. One of the earliest and most influential games was Pong, which was released in 1972 by Atari. Pong was a simple game that involved players hitting a ball back and forth across a screen, but it was revolutionary in its simplicity and laid the groundwork for all future video games.

After the success of Pong, video games continued to evolve at a rapid pace. One of the most popular games of the early 1980s was Space Invaders, which was released in 1978 by Taito. Space Invaders was a simple game that involved players shooting aliens as they descended from the top of the screen. However, the game’s addictive gameplay and simple graphics made it a huge hit, and it is still widely played today.

Other early video games that had a significant impact on the industry include Pac-Man, which was released in 1980 by Namco, and Super Mario Bros., which was released in 1985 by Nintendo. These games were all pioneers in their own right, and helped to establish video games as a legitimate form of entertainment.

The First Video Game: What Makes it Art?

The Creation of “Spacewar!”

The first video game, “Spacewar!”, was created in 1962 by a team of students led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) professor, Dr. Harold E. “H.A.T.” Evans. The game was developed on the DEC PDP-1 computer, which was one of the first computers capable of displaying graphical images on a screen.

The game was inspired by a science fiction novel called “Starship Troopers” by Robert A. Heinlein, which described a future war between humans and aliens. The objective of the game was for the player to control a spaceship and attack an enemy ship while avoiding obstacles such as stars and planets.

The creation of “Spacewar!” was a collaborative effort between several talented individuals, including Alan Kotok, who wrote the game’s code, and Dan D. K. Burke, who created the game’s graphics. The game’s popularity led to the development of several variants, such as “Star Wars” and “Asteroids”, which further solidified its status as a groundbreaking work of interactive entertainment.

The game’s impact extended beyond the realm of gaming, as it was the first to showcase the potential of computer graphics and user interaction. Its influence can be seen in the development of later video games, as well as in the broader fields of computer science and digital art.

The Influence of “Spacewar!” on the Gaming Industry

“Spacewar!” was the first video game to be developed for a computer, and it has had a profound influence on the gaming industry. Its innovative gameplay and graphics set the stage for future video games, and its legacy can still be seen in modern games today.

One of the key ways in which “Spacewar!” influenced the gaming industry was in its use of vector graphics. Unlike raster graphics, which are made up of pixels, vector graphics are made up of mathematical equations that define the shape of an object. This allowed “Spacewar!” to create more complex and detailed graphics than had been possible before, and it set a new standard for video game visuals.

Another way in which “Spacewar!” influenced the gaming industry was in its use of AI. The game’s computer-controlled enemy ship was able to make intelligent decisions about how to attack the player’s ship, making the game more challenging and realistic. This was a major step forward in the use of AI in video games, and it opened up new possibilities for game designers.

In addition to its technical innovations, “Spacewar!” also had a significant impact on the way that people thought about video games as an art form. Its creators saw video games as a way to explore the creative potential of computers, and they approached game design with an artistic mindset. This helped to establish video games as a legitimate form of art, and it paved the way for future game designers to explore the artistic possibilities of the medium.

Overall, “Spacewar!” was a groundbreaking game that had a profound influence on the gaming industry. Its innovative gameplay, graphics, and AI set new standards for video games, and its legacy can still be seen in modern games today. Its status as the first video game ever created also makes it an important historical artifact, and it continues to be studied and appreciated by game designers and players alike.

The Artistic Merits of “Spacewar!”

When discussing the artistic merits of “Spacewar!”, it is important to consider the context in which it was created. The game was developed in the early 1960s by a team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), led by Dr. Ivan Sutherland. The team’s goal was to explore the potential of computer graphics and create a visual display that could be used to teach computer programming concepts.

One of the key artistic merits of “Spacewar!” is its innovative use of vector graphics. Vector graphics are a type of computer graphics that use mathematical equations to create images, rather than pixels. This allowed the game to display complex and dynamic animations that were not possible with raster graphics, which were the dominant form of computer graphics at the time.

Another artistic merit of “Spacewar!” is its use of 3D graphics. While the game’s graphics were not truly 3D, as the game was played on a 2D screen, the use of depth perception and the illusion of 3D space created a sense of immersion for players. This immersive quality was enhanced by the game’s use of motion, as the player’s spaceship and the enemy’s spaceship moved across the screen in response to player input.

The game’s audio was also an important artistic element. While the game did not have a dedicated soundtrack, the sounds of explosions and other effects helped to create a sense of tension and excitement for players. The game’s use of sound was also significant in that it demonstrated the potential for sound to be used as an integral part of the gaming experience, rather than an afterthought.

Overall, the artistic merits of “Spacewar!” are significant in that they demonstrate the potential of computer graphics and sound to be used in a way that creates a compelling and immersive gaming experience. The game’s use of vector graphics, 3D graphics, and audio helped to create a sense of immersion and excitement for players, and its innovative use of these elements helped to establish the video game as a legitimate form of artistic expression.

The Impact of the First Video Game on Game Design

The Emergence of New Genres and Styles

The first video game, a simple game of tennis played on an oscilloscope, was a turning point in the world of gaming. It was a technological marvel of its time, and its impact on the gaming industry was profound. One of the most significant impacts of the first video game was the emergence of new genres and styles in game design.

The first video game was a simple game, but it was also a pioneering work of interactive entertainment. It was a new form of media that allowed players to interact with a digital world in a way that had never been possible before. This new form of media opened up a wide range of possibilities for game designers, and they began to experiment with new genres and styles.

One of the first new genres to emerge was the action game. Action games are games that emphasize fast-paced gameplay and physical challenges. The first video game was not an action game, but it was a precursor to the genre. The simple game of tennis played on an oscilloscope was a precursor to the more complex action games that would come later.

Another new genre that emerged was the sports game. Sports games are games that simulate real-world sports, such as football, basketball, and golf. The first video game was not a sports game, but it was a precursor to the genre. The simple game of tennis played on an oscilloscope was a precursor to the more complex sports games that would come later.

In addition to new genres, the first video game also led to the emergence of new styles in game design. One of the most significant styles to emerge was the arcade game. Arcade games are games that are designed to be played in public places, such as arcades and amusement parks. The first video game was not an arcade game, but it was a precursor to the genre. The simple game of tennis played on an oscilloscope was a precursor to the more complex arcade games that would come later.

Overall, the first video game had a profound impact on game design. It led to the emergence of new genres and styles, and it opened up a wide range of possibilities for game designers. Its influence can still be seen in the games of today, and it will continue to be an important part of the history of gaming for years to come.

The Shift from Arcade to Home Consoles

The release of the first video game in 1972 marked a significant turning point in the gaming industry. The game, known as “Spacewar!”, was a simple but innovative title that was designed for a computer terminal at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The game’s popularity and critical acclaim led to the development of new video games and gaming systems, including the shift from arcade to home consoles.

One of the main reasons for the shift from arcade to home consoles was the growing popularity of home computers. The 1980s saw the rise of home computers such as the Commodore 64, the Apple II, and the IBM PC, which were capable of running video games. This shift was made possible by advances in technology, including the development of cheaper and more powerful hardware, and the rise of software companies that specialized in video games.

The shift from arcade to home consoles also brought about changes in the way games were designed. With the advent of home consoles, game designers had more freedom to experiment with new gameplay mechanics, graphics, and sound. This allowed for a wider range of games to be developed, including sports games, adventure games, and role-playing games. Additionally, the rise of online gaming and multiplayer games meant that players could now connect with others from around the world, which added a new dimension to the gaming experience.

In conclusion, the shift from arcade to home consoles was a significant turning point in the history of video games. It opened up new possibilities for game designers and allowed for a wider range of games to be developed. This shift helped to establish the video game industry as a major player in the entertainment industry, and it continues to evolve and grow to this day.

The Rise of Interactive Storytelling

The first video game, titled “Spacewar!”, was developed in 1962 by a team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). It was a simple game, but it marked the beginning of a new era in entertainment and technology. One of the most significant impacts of this game was the rise of interactive storytelling in video games.

Interactive storytelling is a method of storytelling that allows the player to take an active role in the narrative. In the early days of video games, this was a revolutionary concept. Prior to the release of “Spacewar!”, most video games were simple arcade-style games that did not involve any storytelling elements.

The development of “Spacewar!” changed the game, both literally and figuratively. It showed the potential for video games to be more than just mindless entertainment. Instead, they could be used as a medium for storytelling and player engagement. This idea would go on to shape the future of video games, with many developers incorporating interactive storytelling into their games.

The impact of “Spacewar!” on game design was significant. It demonstrated the potential for video games to be more than just simple diversions. Instead, they could be used to create immersive worlds and compelling stories. This concept would go on to shape the future of video games, with many developers incorporating interactive storytelling into their games.

In the years following the release of “Spacewar!”, interactive storytelling became a staple of video game design. Developers began to incorporate narrative elements into their games, creating rich and immersive worlds for players to explore. This approach to game design has continued to evolve over the years, with new technologies and techniques being developed to enhance the player experience.

Overall, the rise of interactive storytelling in video games can be traced back to the release of “Spacewar!”. This game demonstrated the potential for video games to be more than just simple diversions. Instead, they could be used to create immersive worlds and compelling stories. This concept would go on to shape the future of video games, with many developers incorporating interactive storytelling into their games.

The Legacy of the First Video Game: Its Place in History

The Role of “Spacewar!” in the Development of Video Games

The Origins of “Spacewar!”

In 1961, a team of researchers led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) professor Harold E. “Ed” Therien developed the first-ever video game, titled “Spacewar!”. This groundbreaking game was designed to run on the MIT’s General Motors (GM) computer, which was one of the most powerful computers of its time. The development of “Spacewar!” was not only a result of the researchers’ curiosity but also a way to demonstrate the computer’s capabilities to potential users.

The Gameplay of “Spacewar!”

“Spacewar!” was a simple yet highly engaging game that featured two spaceships, each controlled by a different player. The objective of the game was to shoot the other player’s spaceship while avoiding being shot in return. The game took place on a star field background, which was generated by the computer in real-time. The movement of the spaceships was controlled by the players using the computer’s keyboard, which allowed for smooth and responsive gameplay.

The Impact of “Spacewar!” on the Gaming Industry

The release of “Spacewar!” marked the beginning of the video game industry. The game’s popularity quickly spread beyond the walls of MIT, and it soon became a hit among computer enthusiasts all over the country. “Spacewar!” inspired a new generation of programmers and game designers, who went on to create even more sophisticated and engaging games. The success of “Spacewar!” also encouraged the development of new video game consoles and computers, which further fueled the growth of the gaming industry.

The Influence of “Spacewar!” on Contemporary Games

The legacy of “Spacewar!” can still be felt in contemporary video games. The game’s emphasis on player interaction and competition, as well as its use of real-time graphics, have become hallmarks of the video game industry. Many modern games, such as first-person shooters and space combat games, draw inspiration from “Spacewar!” and its innovative gameplay mechanics. In this way, “Spacewar!” continues to influence the development of video games even today, over half a century after its creation.

The Influence of “Spacewar!” on Popular Culture

• “Spacewar!” as a Pioneering Game: Its Role in Shaping the Future of Video Games
  • “Spacewar!” as a Model for Early Game Development: Lessons Learned from its Design
    • Innovative Features that Revolutionized Gameplay
      • The Concept of Two-Player Interaction: Creating a New Form of Competition
      • The Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Control Enemy Spaceships
      • The Importance of User Input: Integrating Player Interaction with the Game
  • “Spacewar!” as a Blueprint for Future Games: How it Inspired Later Developments
    • The Influence of “Spacewar!” on Other Early Video Games
      • “Space Invaders” and “Asteroids”: The Evolution of Space-Based Games
      • “Pong” and “Tennis for Two”: The Emergence of Sports-Themed Video Games
    • The Enduring Appeal of “Spacewar!”: Why it Remains a Classic to this Day
      • The Timelessness of its Gameplay: The Joy of Battling Enemy Spaceships
      • The Cult Following of “Spacewar!”: Why Fans Still Love this Groundbreaking Game
• “Spacewar!” and Popular Culture: Its Impact on Society and Culture
  • “Spacewar!” as a Cultural Phenomenon: Its Place in the History of Gaming
    • The Role of “Spacewar!” in the Emergence of Video Games as a Mainstream Entertainment
      • The Shift from Simple Games to More Complex and Sophisticated Interactive Experiences
      • The Evolution of Gaming from a Niche Hobby to a Multibillion-Dollar Industry
    • The Lasting Impression of “Spacewar!” on Popular Culture
      • The Influence of “Spacewar!” on Science Fiction and Space Exploration
      • The Inspiration it Provided for Future Artists and Creators
  • “Spacewar!” and the Future of Video Games: The Possibilities for Further Innovation
    • The Continuing Evolution of Video Games: The Next Generation of Interactive Entertainment
      • The Potential for Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality to Enhance Gameplay
      • The Emergence of New Genres and Styles of Games
    • The Legacy of “Spacewar!” for Future Game Developers: Lessons Learned from its Success
      • The Importance of Pushing Boundaries and Taking Risks in Game Design
      • The Value of Learning from the Past to Build a Better Future for Gaming.

The Enduring Appeal of Classic Arcade Games

Even decades after its release, the first video game continues to captivate players with its innovative gameplay and groundbreaking design. One of the key reasons for its enduring appeal is the timeless charm of classic arcade games.

Classic arcade games, including the first video game, have a unique allure that continues to draw players in. Part of this appeal lies in the nostalgia factor, as many players fondly remember spending hours in arcades as a child, eagerly trying to beat their high scores. For others, the challenge of mastering these games and the satisfaction of overcoming obstacles is a major draw.

Moreover, classic arcade games like the first video game are often praised for their simplicity and focus on gameplay over flashy graphics or complex storylines. This simplicity allows players to quickly pick up the game and start playing, without needing to invest hours in learning complicated controls or mechanics. The game’s focus on movement and avoiding obstacles also makes it accessible to players of all ages and skill levels.

Furthermore, the first video game and other classic arcade games have inspired countless imitators and innovations in the gaming industry. As a result, many modern games owe a debt to the groundbreaking designs and gameplay mechanics of these early titles. For these reasons, classic arcade games like the first video game continue to be enjoyed by players today, making them an enduring and beloved part of gaming history.

The Future of Video Game Art: Trends and Innovations

The Rise of Indie Developers and Small Studios

A New Wave of Creative Freedom

In recent years, the video game industry has witnessed a surge in the number of indie developers and small studios. These creators are embracing the digital age, utilizing new tools and platforms to push the boundaries of game design and artistry. They bring fresh perspectives and innovative ideas to the table, often taking risks that larger studios might not. This influx of independent talent has revitalized the industry, leading to a diverse and thriving ecosystem of gaming experiences.

Accessibility and Democratization of Game Development

The rise of indie developers and small studios has made game creation more accessible than ever before. Tools like Unity and Unreal Engine have empowered aspiring creators to bring their visions to life without the need for expensive hardware or extensive programming knowledge. This democratization of game development has opened doors for artists, designers, and storytellers from all walks of life, fostering a thriving community of creators who are redefining what it means to be a video game.

The Power of Collaboration and Networking

Indie developers and small studios often work together, sharing resources and collaborating on projects. This collaborative spirit has led to the formation of tight-knit communities, where creators support one another and share knowledge. Networking events, online forums, and social media platforms have played a crucial role in connecting these developers, allowing them to form relationships that extend beyond their individual projects. These connections foster an environment of mutual support and growth, where creators can learn from one another and push each other to new heights of artistry.

The Emergence of Niche Genres and Experiences

As indie developers and small studios continue to flourish, they are experimenting with new genres and gaming experiences. These creators often focus on niche markets, catering to specific interests and passions. This experimentation has led to the emergence of unique genres, such as walking simulators, narrative-driven games, and games that explore mental health and well-being. These innovative experiences are redefining what gamers expect from their entertainment, expanding the possibilities of what a video game can be.

Embracing Diversity and Inclusivity

Indie developers and small studios are also leading the charge in promoting diversity and inclusivity within the gaming industry. By creating games that reflect a wide range of experiences and perspectives, these creators are helping to break down barriers and challenge stereotypes. They are fostering a more inclusive gaming culture, where players from all backgrounds can find stories and experiences that resonate with them.

The Lasting Impact of Indie Developers and Small Studios

The rise of indie developers and small studios has transformed the video game industry, introducing new artistic elements and experiences that are redefining the medium. As these creators continue to push the boundaries of game design, they are leaving an indelible mark on the future of video game art. By embracing innovation, collaboration, and inclusivity, they are ensuring that the gaming landscape remains vibrant and dynamic, providing endless opportunities for creative expression and exploration.

The Impact of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality

As technology continues to advance, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are poised to have a significant impact on the future of video game art. These technologies offer new ways for players to experience games and for developers to create immersive and interactive worlds.

One of the most significant impacts of VR and AR on video game art is the ability to create more realistic and immersive environments. With VR, players can step into a fully realized digital world and interact with it in a way that was previously impossible. This level of immersion can create a deeper emotional connection to the game world and the characters within it.

Another impact of VR and AR on video game art is the ability to create new forms of gameplay. For example, AR games can overlay digital elements onto the real world, allowing players to interact with virtual objects and characters in their own environment. This creates new possibilities for game designers to create unique and innovative experiences that blur the line between the digital and physical world.

Furthermore, VR and AR technologies also open up new opportunities for storytelling in video games. By creating immersive and interactive environments, developers can tell stories in new and innovative ways that engage players on a deeper level. This can lead to more emotionally impactful and memorable gaming experiences.

In conclusion, the impact of VR and AR on video game art is significant and far-reaching. These technologies offer new ways for players to experience games and for developers to create immersive and interactive worlds. As VR and AR technologies continue to evolve, it is likely that they will play an increasingly important role in the future of video game art.

The Blurring of Lines Between Art and Entertainment

The video game industry has come a long way since the inception of the first video game. With the advancements in technology and the rise of indie game developers, the line between art and entertainment has become increasingly blurred. In this section, we will explore how video games have evolved to become a form of artistic expression, pushing the boundaries of traditional art forms and redefining what it means to be entertaining.

• Interactive Storytelling: Video games have become a medium for storytelling, with many games featuring complex narratives that push the boundaries of traditional storytelling. With the use of interactive elements, players are given the opportunity to experience stories in a unique way, with their choices impacting the outcome of the story. This form of storytelling has led to the development of games that focus on themes such as social commentary, mental health, and personal identity.
• Experimental Game Design: As the video game industry has grown, so too has the number of developers experimenting with new forms of game design. Indie game developers in particular have pushed the boundaries of what is possible in video games, creating games that challenge traditional game mechanics and explore new ways of playing. This experimental approach to game design has led to the development of games that are not only entertaining but also thought-provoking and artistic.
• Art Games: Another trend in the video game industry is the rise of art games. These games prioritize artistic expression over traditional gameplay mechanics, with many featuring abstract graphics, non-linear gameplay, and minimalist design. Art games often explore themes such as philosophy, emotions, and social issues, pushing the boundaries of what is considered entertaining.
• Virtual Reality: With the advent of virtual reality technology, video games have become an immersive experience that blurs the lines between reality and fiction. Virtual reality games transport players to entirely new worlds, allowing them to interact with their environment in a way that was previously impossible. This new form of gaming has opened up new possibilities for artistic expression, with developers using virtual reality to create experiences that are both entertaining and thought-provoking.

In conclusion, the blurring of lines between art and entertainment in the video game industry has led to the development of new forms of artistic expression. With the rise of interactive storytelling, experimental game design, art games, and virtual reality, video games have become a medium for artistic expression that is pushing the boundaries of traditional art forms. As the industry continues to evolve, it will be exciting to see how video games continue to redefine what it means to be both entertaining and artistic.

The Potential of Video Games as a New Medium for Artistic Expression

Video games have come a long way since the days of Pong, and the potential for artistic expression through gaming has never been greater. As technology continues to advance, video games are becoming an increasingly popular medium for artists to express themselves.

One of the most exciting trends in video game art is the rise of narrative-driven games. These games prioritize storytelling and character development, offering players an immersive experience that blurs the line between game and art. Some examples of these games include The Last of Us, What Remains of Edith Finch, and Life is Strange.

Another trend in video game art is the use of procedural generation, which allows for the creation of unique, algorithmically generated environments and landscapes. This technology has the potential to create truly infinite worlds, where every player’s experience is unique. Games like No Man’s Sky and Elite Dangerous are using procedural generation to create vast, explorable universes.

The potential for virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in video game art is also an exciting development. These technologies offer the possibility of creating fully immersive experiences that can transport players to entirely new worlds. Games like Resident Evil 7 and Superhot VR are already experimenting with VR, and it’s only a matter of time before we see even more ambitious projects in this space.

Overall, the potential for artistic expression in video games is vast and varied. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative and groundbreaking projects in the world of gaming.

FAQs

1. What was the first video game that was considered art?

The first video game that was considered art was “Spacewar!” which was created in 1962 by a team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This groundbreaking game featured two-dimensional graphics and was designed to be played on a computer terminal. The game’s innovative design and gameplay mechanics were considered a significant departure from the typical arcade-style games of the time, making it a pioneering work of art in the field of video games.

2. What makes a video game art?

There is no one definitive answer to this question, as different people may have different opinions on what constitutes art in a video game. However, some common factors that are often cited include innovative gameplay mechanics, compelling storytelling, and exceptional graphics and sound design. Additionally, many people believe that a video game must be able to evoke an emotional response in the player in order to be considered art.

3. How did “Spacewar!” influence the development of video games?

“Spacewar!” had a significant impact on the development of video games, as it was one of the first games to demonstrate the potential of the medium as a form of art. The game’s innovative design and gameplay mechanics inspired other game developers to push the boundaries of what was possible in video games, leading to the creation of many more sophisticated and artistically-driven games in the years that followed. Additionally, “Spacewar!” helped to establish the video game industry as a legitimate form of entertainment, paving the way for the widespread popularity of video games today.

4. Who created “Spacewar!”?

“Spacewar!” was created by a team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1962. The team included some of the most prominent figures in the early history of video games, including Alan Kay, Dan Bricklin, and Bob Bemer. These individuals went on to have significant careers in the video game industry and are often credited with helping to shape the medium into what it is today.

5. What kind of impact did “Spacewar!” have on popular culture?

“Spacewar!” had a significant impact on popular culture, as it was one of the first video games to gain widespread attention and acclaim. The game’s innovative design and gameplay mechanics helped to establish video games as a legitimate form of entertainment, and its influence can be seen in the many games that have followed in its footsteps. Additionally, “Spacewar!” helped to popularize the concept of interactive entertainment, paving the way for the widespread adoption of video games and other interactive media in the years that followed.